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DRUM & HAZARD LABELS
Drum labels are used in many industries. From marking chemical drums, solvent drums, oil containers, flammable solvents, potable water just to name a few. Hazard labels are used to indicate a dangerous condition including electrical shock hazard, arc-flash hazard, high voltage, burn hazard, hot surfaces, sharp surfaces just to name a few.
Applications for Drum & Hazard Label: Drum and hazard labels are used in many industrial situations including:
OSHA has many regulations concerning the use and design of Hazard and Drum labels. Below is a listing of current regulations as it refers to "front usage" and "readability" of hazard and drum labels. 3.1.4 READABILITY 3.1.4.1 Legibility Legibility involves both the typographical elements and the surface upon which the message is printed (Hale, 1991). This was abundantly illustrated when Congress required a health warning on tobacco packages but provided little in the way of specifications. The labels produced could scarcely be read in many instances, due to type size and the contrast between the ink and paper chosen. In 1988, Congress passed a similar requirement for beer and wine but this time included specific requirements, including that the first two words must be "GOVERNMENT WARNING" set in boldface capitals. A study commissioned by the Public Health Service (1990) looked at the effectiveness of these proscribed warnings and found that when the color of the typography and the color of the background were measured, a Contrast Ratio (CR) could be derived, which proved to be a valid measure of legibility. Specimens with high CR values were less legible, despite containing the same warning in the same size type. Hale (1991) concluded that even with reasonable attempts to mandate legibility there have been a number of factors not specified that can have significant effects. "If regulators and others who wish to formulate rules for legibility are to enjoy even modest success, it is clear that they will need the assistance of well-defined standards covering all the attributes described (Hale, 1991)." Howett (1983) derived a formula giving the letter stroke-width needed for legibility of words on a sign at any given distance by an observer with any given visual acuity. The stroke width, in turn, determines the letter size, depending upon the characteristics of the type face used. The derivation is strictly mathematical and is based on the assumption that beyond a distance of a few meters, a person's visual acuity is specifiable by a fixed visual angle, independent of the distance. The author does provide graphs for correcting the critical stroke width for nonstandard contrast or background luminance based on a body of data on visual acuity as a function of contrast and background luminance. 3.1.4.2 Reading level evaluations Dangerous accidents may occur when people misread written materials, consequently materials must match the reading level of the intended audience. There are several internationally recognized instruments for measuring the reading level of written materials but none of them deal with the comprehensibility of the materials, as indicated earlier. Kreindler and Luchsinger (1978) suggest determining the reading-grade level of all safety materials using standardized methods such as the FORCAST formula or the Flesch Reading Ease Index. Laughery and Brelsford (1996) reported commonly finding product warnings written at significantly higher grade level than the grade 4 to 6 range that is usually recommended for general target audiences. A discussion of reading level measures and their application to the design of instructions and warnings can be found in Duffy (1985). 3.1.4.3 Type Fonts and Type Size Braun and Silver (1992) looked at over-the-counter and prescription drugs and examined certain variables associated with legibility, namely font type, font weight, point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning. The results indicated that participants were more likely to read the warning in Helvetica type (a sans serif face) than in Times or Goudy (both serif faces). Times was more likely to be read than Goudy. Bold type was more likely to be read than Roman type. There was a greater likelihood of reading the warning when the main body was in 10-point size as compared to 8-point size. A 2-point size difference between the signal word and the main body of the warning produced a greater likelihood of reading the warning over a 4-point size difference. One possibility for this result is that the 4-point size difference minimizes the importance of the main body of the warning, therefore making only the signal word salient. Looking at pesticide labeling, Silver, Kline and Braun (1994) obtained different results from their earlier work with prescription drugs. The variables used were the same: font type, point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning (signal word-text size difference), and point size of the signal word. College students rated 36 insecticide labels that contained a warning which varied across all levels of the three variables. Results showed that Century Schoolbook was perceived as more readable than Bookman or Helvetica. Moreover, greater perceived readability was obtained when there was no difference between the point sizes of the signal word and the body of the warning. Perceived readability and perceived hazardousness decreased as the signal word-text size difference increased. There was greater perceived readability and perceived hazardousness when the signal word was printed in 14-point type than in 12- or 10- point types. 3.1.5 PLACEMENT OF INFORMATION One of the key variables on warning effectiveness is where the information is placed. This includes placement of information within a label as well as the physical placement of a warning sign in proximity to the hazard the warning describes. In tests on the effectiveness of three different warning label designs for a portable electric heater, researchers Gill, Barbera, and Precht (1993) found that the design requiring the user to interact with the label in order to use the heater was more effective in attracting the user's attention that a traditional label or a color-coded "ski-pass" label attached near the male end of the electric cord. However, none of them were effective in mediating safe user behavior. An experiment on the noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverage containers indicated that warnings on the front label were found more quickly than warnings appearing in any other location. Also, warnings printed horizontally were found more quickly than warnings printed vertically. The signal phrase ("Government Warning"), as well as the amount of "noise" or clutter on the surrounding label, significantly influenced warning detection times. The authors suggested that proper manipulation of these design features could make the mandated warning more noticeable (Godfrey et al. 1993). Godfrey and colleagues (1993c) also looked at the effect of the physical size and location of the warnings. Warnings were posted on a copy machine, a public telephone, a water fountain, and two sets of doors. Most people did not use the copy machine and the telephone when they had the warnings on them. The warning on the water fountain was not effective when a single, small warning was used. When that plus a larger, more forceful warning was used, most people did not drink from the water fountain. The warnings on the doors were not obeyed unless there was a convenient alternative exit available. Warnings with a low cost of compliance are apparently more effective. Additionally, the warnings cannot be too small and must be placed strategically. A paradigm was developed to examine the effectiveness of warnings in a laboratory task (Wogalter, Fontenelle, and Laughery, 1993). Compliance (use of mask and gloves) was affected by the inclusion of the warning as well as by its location. Greatest compliance occurred when the warning was placed prior to the instructions. The addition of a printed statement placed before the instructions (with warning at the end) to read through the instructions before beginning produced intermediate compliance that was not significantly different from the warning beginning and end conditions. Observation revealed that when the warning message was at the end of the instructions subjects complied only when they saw the warning message before starting the task. These results indicate that if warnings are placed in front of instructions the consumer is more likely to read and comply. Another chemistry lab format was used by Wogalter, Kalsher, and Racicot (1992) to examine the efficacy of two warning-related factors to produce cautionary behavior. Experiment 1 compared the effects of a posted-sign warning and a within instruction warning on behavioral compliance. The results showed that a warning embedded in a set of task instructions produced significantly greater compliance (the wearing of protective gear) than a similar, larger warning posted as a sign nearby. Experiment 2 reexamined the effect of location and also examined the influence of the presence versus absence of pictorials. The results of Experiment 2 confirmed the location effect of Experiment 1. No influence of pictorials was noted, although there was a nonsignificant increase in compliance when pictorials were added to the within-instruction warning. The results indicated that warning placement is important for eliciting behavioral compliance to safety messages. Explanation such as difference in field of view and perceived relevance are discussed. FMC Corporation (1985), as part of their safety program, emphasized the appropriate placement of safety signs and labels to reduce the occurrence of accidents. Frantz (1992) found that contrary to current, recommended practice, substantially more subjects read and complied with warnings and instructions that appeared in the directions for use rather than the "precautions" section. On average, moving an instruction from the precautions into the directions increased the reading rate from 37% to 89% and increased the compliance rate from 48% to 83%. Materials: Drum and hazard labels are most often supplied on vinyl or polyester materials however we offer a complete listing of our materials. See all materials |